Abstract

This study aims to examine preschool children's executive function skills and motivation about various variables and determine the relationship between these two domains. A correlational survey method was employed in the study, and the study group consisted of 224 children aged 48–72 months attending preschool education institutions in Türkiye. The data collection tools used in the study were the Family Information Form, the Childhood Executive Function Inventory, and the Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire for Preschool Children. The findings revealed that children's executive function skills significantly differed based on gender, age, and type of school attended. At the same time, their motivation significantly varied according to gender, the duration of preschool education, and the type of school attended. Furthermore, a significant relationship was found between children's motivation and executive function skills. It is recommended that educators adopt suitable pedagogical approaches that incorporate specific arrangements, activities, and instructional methods designed to foster the development of these skills in children.

Keywords

References

• Aarnoudse-Moens, C. S., Smidts, D. P., Oosterlaan, J., Duivenvoorden, H. J., & Weisglas-Kuperus, N. (2009). Executive function in very preterm children at early school age. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(7), 981–993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9327-z
• Acar, I. H., Veziroğlu-Çelik, M., Garcia, A., Colgrove, A., Raikes, H., Gönen, M., & Encinger, A. (2019). The qualities of teacher–child relationships and self-regulation of children at risk in the United States and Turkey: The moderating role of gender. Early Childhood Education Journal, 47(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-018-0893-y
• Akbaba, S. (2006). Eğitimde motivasyon [Motivation in education]. Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Journal, 13, 343–361.
• Akbaba, S., & Aktaş, A. (2005). Searching internal motivation according to some variables. M.Ü. Atatürk Faculty of Education Journal of Educational Sciences, 21, 19–42.
• Amukune, S., & Jozsa, K. (2023). Approaches to learning in elementary classrooms: Contribution of mastery motivation and executive functions on academic achievement. International Journal of Instruction, 16(2), 389–412. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2023.16222a
• Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724
• Arslan-Çiftçi, H. (2020). The validity and reliability study of Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory for 48–72 months old children and exploring the effectiveness of Preschool Executive Functions Training Program (Publication no. 647853) [Master’s thesis, Marmara University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.
• Arslan-Çiftçi, H., Uyanık, G., & Acar, İ. H. (2020). The validity and reliability study of the Turkish Version of Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory for 48–72-Month-old children. Journal of Early Childhood Studies, 4(3), 762–787. https://doi.org/10.24130/eccd-jecs.1967202043260
• Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65
• Best, J., Miller, P., & Jones, L. (2009). Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates. Developmental Review, 29, 180–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002
• Blasiman, R. N., & Was, C. A. (2018). Why is working memory performance unstable? A review of 21 factors. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 188. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v14i1.1472
• Bronson, N. (2000). Self-regulation in early childhood. Nature and nurture. Guilford Press.
• Buss, A. T., & Spencer, J. P. (2014). The emergent executive: A dynamic field theory of the development of executive function. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 79(2), 128–132. https://doi.org/10.1002/mono.12096
• Camerota, M., Willoughby, M. T., Kuhn, L. J., & Blair, C. B. (2018). The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI): Factor structure, measurement invariance, and correlates in US preschoolers. Child Neuropsychology, 24, 322–337. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2016.1247795
• Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 595–616. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203764244
• Cartwright, K. B., Lee, S. A., Taboada Barber, A., DeWyngaert, L. U., Lane, A. B., & Singleton, T. (2020). Contributions of executive function and cognitive intrinsic motivation to university students’ reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(3), 345–369. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.273
• Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Pearson.
• Dağlı, H. (2022). Eğitim ortamları ve motivasyon. [Educational environments and motivation]. In Özbey, S., & Dağlıoğlu, E. (Eds.), Erken çocuklukta motivasyon [Motivation in early childhood] (pp. 121–133). Nobel.
• Dağlı, H., & Dağlıoğlu, H. E. (2021). The relationship between preschool teachers' pedagogical content knowledge in mathematics, children's math ability, and liking. Research in Pedagogy, 11(2), 359–376. https://doi.org/10.5937/IstrPed2102359D
• Daniels, S., & Peters, D. B. (2019). Raising creative kids. SCB Distributors.
• Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2014). Relations between false belief understanding and executive function in early childhood: A meta‐ analysis. Child Development, 85(5), 1777-1794. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12237
• Diamond, A. (2002). Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemistry. In D. Stuss & R. Knight (Eds.), Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 12–15). Oxford University.
• Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
• Diamond, A. (2014). Want to optimize executive functions and academic outcomes? Simple, just nourish the human spirit. Minnesota Symposium in Child Psychology, 37, 205–232. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118732373.ch7
• Diamond, A., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1989). Comparison of human infants and rhesus monkeys on Piaget's AB task: Evidence for dependence on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Experimental Brain Research, 74(1), 24–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00248277
• Dick, A. S., & Overton, W. F. (2010). Executive function: Description and explanation. In U. Socol, & J. Müller (Eds.), Self and social regulation: Social interaction and the development of social understanding and executive functions (pp. 7–34). Oxford University. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327694.003.0001
• Dunn, K., Georgiou, G. & Das, J.P. (2020). The relationship of cognitive processes with reading and mathematics achievement in intellectually gifted children.Roeper Review, 42(2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2020.1728803
• Durston, S., Thomas, K. M., Worden, M. S., Yang, Y., & Casey, B. J. (2002). The effect of preceding context on inhibition: An event-related fMRI study. Neuroimage, 16(2), 449–453. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2002.1074.
• Ernst, J., & Firdevs, B. (2019). Young children’s contributions to sustainability: The influence of nature play on curiosity, executive function skills, creative thinking, and resilience. Sustainability, 11(15), https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154212.
• Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31
• Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H. (2004). The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 40(2), 177. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177
• Göğebakan, S. (2011). The investigation of mothers? views on preschool education according to some demographic characteristics sending their children to pre-school institutions: The sample of Malatya province (Publication no. 300587) [Master’s thesis, İnönü University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.
• Gray, S. I., Robertson, J., Manches, A., & Rajendran, G. (2019). BrainQuest: The use of motivational design theories to create a cognitive training game supporting hot executive function. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 127, 124–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2018.08.004
• Gültekin, E. S. (2008). Multi-variable evaluation of 5 year olds’ social skills (Publication no. 232007) [Master’s thesis, Ankara University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.
• Günindi, Y. (2011). The evaluation of social skills of children attending independent preschool and kindergarten. Ahi Evran University Kırşehir Faculty of Education Journal, 12(1), 133–144.
• Harvey, H. A. (2011). Executive function development and early mathematics: Examination of dual language learners [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Denver University, Colorado.
• Huang, S. Y., & LingLay, K. (2017). Mastery motivation in infancy and early childhood: The consistency and variation of its stability and predictability of general competence. Hungarian Educational Research Journal, 7(2), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.14413/herj.2017.02.02
• Jozsa, K., & Morgan, G. A. (2015). An improved measure of mastery motivation: Reliability and validity of the Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ 18) for preschool children. Hungarian Educational Research Journal, 5(4), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.14413/HERJ2015.04.08
• Kahriman-Pamuk, D., Güler Yıldız, T., & Ertürk-Kara, H. G. (2025). Nurturing young minds through nature: Investigating children’s executive functions in a forest kindergarten in Turkey. Theory and Practice in Child Development, 5(1), 79-97.
• Kalayli, A., & Gültekin-Akduman, G. (2024). Investigation of the relationship between children’s motivation levels and their mothers’ child-rearing attitudes. Kalem Journal of Education and Human Sciences, 14(1), 45–72. https://doi.org/10.23863/kalem.2023.256
• Karabekmez, S., & Akman, B. (2022). Examination of the executive function skills of 5-year-old children receiving preschool education according to some variables. OPUS Journal of Society Research, 19(48), 617–632. https://doi.org/10.26466/opusjsr.1112099
• Kaya, Z., & Köse, A. (2020). Preschool education from the lens of school administrators working at different levels. Manas Journal of Social Research, 9(3), 1532–1553. https://doi.org/10.33206/mjss.703602
• Kayhan, E. (2010). A validation study for The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory: Behavioral correlates of executive functioning (Publication no. 271208) [Master’s thesis, Boğaziçi University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.
• Kayhan, R. F., Hacıcaferoğlu, S., Aydoğan, H., & Erdemir, İ. (2018).
• Examination of mental toughness situations of athletes interested in team and individual sports. Journal of Sports and Education Sciences, 5(2), 55–64.
• Kılıç, K., & Güngör Aytar, F. (2017). The effect of social skills training on social skills in early childhood, the relationship between social skills and temperament. Education and Science, 42(191), 185–204. https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2017.7162
• Köycegiz, M., & Özbey, S. (2019). An investigation of the motivation levels of children in preschool education institutions in terms of problem-solving skills and some variables related to teachers. Folklore/Literature, 25(97), 554–574. https://doi.org/10.26822/iejee.2019553344
• Kvintova, J., Kremenkova, L., Cuberek, R., Petrova, J., Stuchlikova, I., Dobesova-Cakirpaloglu, S., Pugnerova, M., Balaova, K., Lemrova, S., Viteckova, M. & Plevova, I. (2022). Preschoolers’ attitudes, school motivation, and executive functions in the context of various types of kindergarten. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 823980. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.823980
• Lepola, J., Niemi, P., Kuikka, M., & Hannula, M. M. (2005). Cognitive-linguistic skills and motivation as longitudinal predictors of reading and arithmetic achievement: A follow-up study from kindergarten to grade 2. International Journal of Educational Research, 43(4–5), 250–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2006.06.005
• Marulis, L. M., & Nelson, L. J. (2021). Metacognitive processes and associations to executive function and motivation during a problem-solving task in 3–5 year olds. Metacognition and Learning, 16(1), 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09244-6
• McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Duncan, R., Bowles, R. P., Acock, A. C., Miao, A., & Pratt, M. E. (2014). Predictors of early growth in academic achievement: The Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00599
• McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Wanless, S. B., Murray, A., Saracho, O., & Spodek, B. (2007). Executive function, behavioral self-regulation, and social-emotional competence. Contemporary Perspectives on Social Learning in Early Childhood Education, 1, 113–137. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy114
• McCree, M., Cutting, R. & Sherwin, D. (2018) The hare and the tortoise go to forest school: Taking the scenic route to academic attainment via emotional well-being outdoors. Early Child Development and Care, 188(7), 980-996. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1446430
• McKinnon, R. D., & Blair, C. (2019). Bidirectional relations among executive function, teacher–child relationships, and early reading and math achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 152–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.03.011
• Ministry of National Education [MoNE]. (2024). Türkiye Yüzyılı Maarif Modeli okul öncesi eğitim programı [The Century of Türkiye Maarif Model preschool education program]. General Directorate of Basic Education.
• Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244(4907), 933–938. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2658056
• Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
• Morgan, C. T. (1996). Introduction to psychology. McGraw-Hill.
• Morgan, G. A., Liao, H.-F., Nyitrai, Á., Huang, S.-Y., Wang, P.-J., Blasco, P. M. Ramakrishnan, J., & Jόzsa, K. (2017). The revised Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ 18) for infants and preschool children with and without risks or delays in Hungary, Taiwan and the US. Hungarian Educational Research Journal, 7(2), 48–67.
• Neitzel, J. (2018). What measures of program quality tell us about the importance of executive function: Implications for teacher education and preparation. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 39(3), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2018.1457580
• Nguyen, T., & Duncan, G. J. (2019). Kindergarten components of executive function and third grade achievement: A national study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.05.006
• Nilsen, E. S., Huyder, V., McAuley, T., & Liebermann, D. (2017). Ratings of Everyday Executive Functioning (REEF): A parent-report measure of preschoolers’ executive functioning skills. Psychological Assessment, 29(1), 50–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000308
• Öğütcen, A. (2020). Investigation of executive function skills and perception of geometric shape of preschool children (Publication no. 619387) [Master’s thesis, Hacettepe University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.
• Öner, S., & Özbey, S. (2023). Investigation of the relationship between social information processing skills and psychological resilience levels of preschool children. Euroasia Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 10(31), 109–128. https://doi.org/10.29228/JOSHAS.62751
• Ormrod, J. E. (2013). Educational psychology: developing learners. Pearson.
• Otterman, D. L., Koopman‑Verhoeff, M. E., White, T. J., Tiemeier, H., Bolhuis, K., & Jansen, P. W. (2019). Executive functioning and neurodevelopmental disorders in early childhood: A prospective population‑based study. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 13, 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-019-0299-7
• Özbey, S. (2018). A study on the motivation and self-regulation skills of the pre-school children. Academic Journal of Social Research, 6(65), 26–47. http://doi.org/10.16992/asos.13361
• Özbey, S., & Dağlıoğlu, H. E. (2017). Adaptation study of the motivation scale for the preschool children (DMQ18). International Journal of Academic Research, 2(1), 1–14.
• Pekince, P., & Avcı, N. (2016). Pre-school teachers’ applications related to early childhood mathematics: A qualitative look at activity plans. Kastamonu Education Journal, 24(5), 2391–2408.
• Rachanioti, E., Alevriadou, A., & Charitaki, G. (2024). Components of early executive functioning in the prediction of academic success in high-ability preschool children. The International Journal of Early Childhood Learning, 32(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.18848/2327-7939/CGP/v32i01/1-28
• Rachanioti, E., Alevriadou, A., & Charitaki, G. (2025). Bidirectional associations between executive functions and early academic skills in preschool children with high abilities: A cross-lagged model analysis. The International Journal of Early Childhood Learning, 33(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.18848/2327-7939/CGP/v33i01/1-22
• Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2005). Genes and experience in the development of executive attention and effortful control. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 109, 101–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.142
• Schmeichel, B. J., & Tang, D. (2015). Individual differences in executive functioning and their relationship to emotional processes and responses. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(2), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414555178
• Sigman, M., Cohen, S. E., Beckwith, L., & Topinka, C. (1987). Task persistence in 2-year-old preterm infants in relation to subsequent attentiveness and intelligence. Infant Behavior and Development, 10(3), 295–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-6383(87)90018-X
• Stucke, N. J., & Doebel, S. (2024). Early childhood executive function predicts concurrent and later social and behavioral outcomes: A review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 150(10), 1178–1206. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000445
• Taghinejad, M., Abedi, A., & Ghamarani, A. (2021). Effectiveness of the growth mindset intervention on learning behaviors in the middle school gifted underachievers. Preventive Counseling, 1(3), 61–78.
• Thorell, L. B., & Catale, C. (2014). The assessment of executive functioning using the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI). In S. Goldstein, & J. Naglieri (Eds.), Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 359–366). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5_20
• Thorell, L. B., & Nyberg, L. (2008). The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI): A new rating instrument for parents and teachers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(4), 536–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640802101516
• Tominey, S., & Mcclelland, M. (2011). Red Light, purple light: Findings from a randomized trial using circle time games to improve behavioral self-regulation in preschool. Early Education and Development, 22(3), 489-519. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2011.574258
• Ural, O., Güven, G., Sezer, T., Azkeskin, K., & Yılmaz, E. (2015). Investigation of the relationship between attachment styles and social competence and emotion regulation skills of preschool children. Hacettepe University Faculty of Health Sciences Journal, 17(62), 434–446.
• Veijalainen, J., Reunamo, J., & Alijoki, A. (2017). Children’s self-regulation skills in the Finnish day care environment. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research, 6(1), 89–107.
• Veraksa, A., Gavrilova, M., & Lepola, J. (2022). Learning motivation tendencies among preschoolers: Impact of executive functions and gender differences. Acta Psychologica, 228, 103647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103647
• Vergara-Lopez, C., Lopez-Vergara, H. I., & Colder, C. R. (2013). Executive functioning moderates the relationship between motivation and adolescent depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(1), 18–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.07.034
• Viterbori, P., Usai, M. C., Traverso, L., & De Franchis, V. (2015). How preschool executive functioning predicts several aspects of math achievement in Grades 1 and 3: A longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 140, 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.014
• Vitiello, V. E., Greenfield, D. B., Munis, P., & George, J. (2011). Cognitive flexibility, approaches to learning, and academic school readiness in Head Start preschool children. Early Education and Development, 22(3), 388–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2011.538366
• Weiland, C., Barata, M. C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2014). The co‐occurring development of executive function skills and receptive vocabulary in preschool‐aged children: A look at the direction of the developmental pathways. Infant and Child Development, 23(1), 4–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1829
• Yapıcı, M., & Ulu, F. B. (2010). First grade teachers’ expectations from preschool teachers. Journal of Theoretical Educational Science, 3(1), 43–55.
• Yılmaz, E., & Tepeli, K. (2013). Examination of social problem solving skills of 60-72 months old children in terms of their emotion understanding skills. Turkish Journal of Social Research, 172, 117–130. https://doi.org/10.20296/tsad.48978
• Zamzow, J. ,& Ernst, J. (2020). Supporting school readiness naturally: exploring executive function growth in nature preschools. The International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 7(2), 6-16.
• Zelazo, P.D., Blair, C.B., & Willoughby, M.T. (2016). Executive function: Implications for education. US Department of Education.

License

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.