Abstract

Online learning is one of the learning designs considered more efficient in terms of time, as it can be done anywhere and anytime. This study investigates two factors that may influence mathematics achievement in the context of online learning: self-regulated learning and self-efficacy. The researcher aimed to explain the relationships between online learning and mathematics achievement, self-regulated learning and mathematics achievement, self-efficacy and mathematics achievement, self-regulated learning and online learning, self-efficacy and online learning, self-efficacy and online learning with mathematics achievement, and self-regulated learning and online learning with mathematics achievement. The validity of the research instrument was first tested through expert judgment. The sample consisted of grade VIII students from schools implementing the new curriculum in Indonesia. The data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The results showed that mathematics achievement is directly influenced by online learning, self-regulated learning, and self-efficacy. Furthermore, when online learning acts as a moderating variable, mathematics achievement is also indirectly influenced by self-efficacy and self-regulated learning.

Keywords

References

• Andrew, P., & Erin, P. (2021). Investigating teacher development of self-regulated learning skills in secondary science students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 105, 103403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103403
• Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self‑efficacy scales. In F. Pajares & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Self‑efficacy beliefs of adolescents (Vol. 5, pp. 307–337). Information Age Publishing.
• Ben-Eliyahu, A., & Bernacki, M. L. (2015). Addressing complexities in self-regulated learning: a focus on contextual factors, contingencies, and dynamic relations. Metacognition Learning, 10, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-015-9134-6
• Broadbent, J., & Poon, W. L. (2015). Self-regulated learning strategies & academic achievement in online higher education learning environments: A systematic review. The Internet and Higher Education, 27, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.04.007
• Broeren, M., Heijltjes, A., Verkoeijen, P., Smeets, G., & Arends, L. (2021). Supporting the self-regulated use of retrieval practice: A higher education classroom experiment. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 64, 101939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101939
• Capron Puozzo, I., & Audrin, C. (2021). Improving self-efficacy and creative self-efficacy to foster creativity and learning in schools. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 42, 100966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100966
• Cheng, Z., Zhang, D., Peng, S., Xiong, X., & Xiong, Q. (2025). Digital diaries supporting self-regulated learning during in-person and online transitions. The Internet and Higher Education, 65, 100994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2025.100994
• Dhawan, S. (2020). Online Learning: A Panacea in the Time of COVID-19 Crisis. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 49(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018
• Engzell, P., Frey, A., & Verhagen, M. D. (2021). Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(17), e2022376118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022376118
• Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.2753/mtp1069-6679190202
• Handoko, E., Gronseth, S. L., McNeil, S. G., Bonk, C. J., & Robin, B. R. (2019). Goal setting and mooc completion: a study on the role of self-regulated learning in student performance in massive open online courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 20(3), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v20i4.4270
• Hobbiss, M. H., & Lavie, N. (2024). Sustained selective attention in adolescence: cognitive development and predictors of distractibility at school. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 238, 105784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105784
• Hu, N., Li, Y., He, S. S., Wang, L. L., Wei, Y. Y., Yin, L., & Chen, J. X. (2020). Impact of the family environment on the emotional state of medical staff during the covid-19 outbreak: the mediating effect of self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.576515
• Jiang, A., & Li, G. (2024). Enhancing cognitive abilities through the poe teaching strategy in a virtual learning environment. Cognitive Systems Research, 88, 101295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2024.101295
• Lai, C. L., & Hwang, G. J. (2016). A self-regulated flipped classroom approach to improving students’ learning performance in a mathematics course. Computers and Education, 100, 126–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.05.006
• Lan, X., Ma, C., & Ma, Y. (2023). “Three pills” (cognitive reappraisal × social support × cognitive flexibility) and their impact on adhd symptoms in early adolescence: synergistic or compensatory effect? Personality and Individual Differences, 211, 112246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112246
• Li, Y. (2024). The mechanism of self-regulated learning among rural primary middle school students: academic delay of gratification and resilience. Learning and Motivation, 87, 102013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.102013
• Liu, R., Jong, C., & Fan, M. (2024). Reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and achievement in mathematics among high school students. Large-Scale Assessments in Education, 12(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40536-024-00201-2
• MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2011). Construct measurement and validation procedures in mis and behavioral research: integrating new and existing techniques. MIS Quarterly: Management Information Systems, 35(2), 293–334. https://doi.org/10.2307/23044045
• Maqableh, M., & Alia, M. (2021). Evaluation online learning of undergraduate students under lockdown amidst covid-19 pandemic: the online learning experience and students’ satisfaction. Children and Youth Services Review, 128, 106160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106160
• Misirli, O., & Ergulec, F. (2021). Emergency remote teaching during the covid-19 pandemic: parents experiences and perspectives. Education and Information Technologies, 26(6), 6699–6718. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10639-021-10520-4
• Noori, A. Q. (2021). The impact Of COVID-19 pandemic on students’ learning in higher education in Afghanistan. Heliyon, 7(10), e08113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.E08113
• Nufus, H., Muhandaz, R., Hasanuddin, Nurdin, E., Ariawan, R., Fineldi, R. J., Hayati, I. R., & Situmorang, D. D. B. (2024). Analyzing the students’ mathematical creative thinking ability in terms of self-regulated learning: how do we find what we are looking for? Heliyon, 10(3), e24871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.E24871
• OECD. (2021). The state of school education: one year into the covid pandemic. Author. https://doi.org/10.1787/201dde84-en
• Pajares, F., & Graham, L. (1999). Self-efficacy, motivation constructs, and mathematics performance of entering middle school students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24(2), 124–139. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1998.0991
• Panadero, E. (2017). A review of self-regulated learning: six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(APR), 422. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422
• Pardo, A., Han, F., & Ellis, R. A. (2017). Combining university student self-regulated learning indicators and engagement with online learning events to predict academic performance. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 10(1), 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1109/tlt.2016.2639508
• Peechapol, C., Na-Songkhla, J., Sujiva, S., & Luangsodsai, A. (2018). An exploration of factors influencing self-efficacy in online learning: a systematic review. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 13(9), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v13i09.8351
• Prior, D. D., Mazanov, J., Meacheam, D., Heaslip, G., & Hanson, J. (2016). Attitude, digital literacy and self efficacy: flow-on effects for online learning behavior. The Internet and Higher Education, 29, 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2016.01.001
• Roemer, E., Schuberth, F., & Org Henseler, J. (2021). HTMT2-an improved criterion for assessing discriminant validity in structural equation modeling. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 121(12), 2637–2650. https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-02-2021-0082
• Roick, J., & Ringeisen, T. (2018). Students’ math performance in higher education: examining the role of self-regulated learning and self-efficacy. Learning and Individual Differences, 65, 148–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.05.018
• Sezer, H. B., & Namukasa, I. K. (2021). Real-world problems through computational thinking tools and concepts: the case of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching and Learning, 14(1), 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1108/jrit-12-2020-0085
• Tan, Y., Yang, T., Yang, J., & Li, K. (2025). Mediation of mathematical self-efficacy in the relationship between teacher-student relationships and mathematics achievement by grade and academic level: a multi-group structural equation modeling. Learning and Individual Differences, 120, 102696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102696
• Wang, T., Li, S., Tan, C., Zhang, J., & Lajoie, S. P. (2023). Cognitive load patterns affect temporal dynamics of self-regulated learning behaviors, metacognitive judgments, and learning achievements. Computers & Education, 207, 104924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104924
• Wang, Y., & Tambi, F. B. (2024). Correlation between students’ perceived parental expectations and students’ academic engagement: the intermediary effect of academic self-efficacy. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 8(3), 16–33. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpr.202427683
• Wesarg-Menzel, C., Ebbes, R., Hensums, M., Wagemaker, E., Zaharieva, M. S., Staaks, J. P. C., van den Akker, A. L., Visser, I., Hoeve, M., Brummelman, E., Dekkers, T. J., Schuitema, J. A., Larsen, H., Colonnesi, C., Jansen, B. R. J., Overbeek, G., Huizenga, H. M., & Wiers, R. W. (2023). Development and socialization of self-regulation from infancy to adolescence: a meta-review differentiating between self-regulatory abilities, goals, and motivation. Developmental Review, 69, 101090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2023.101090
• Winne, P. H. (2018). Theorizing and researching levels of processing in self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12173
• Winne, P. H., & Perry, N. E. (2000). Measuring self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 531–566). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50045-7
• Xu, Z., Zhao, Y., Liew, J., Zhou, X., & Kogut, A. (2023). Synthesizing research evidence on self-regulated learning and academic achievement in online and blended learning environments: a scoping review. Educational Research Review, 39, 100510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100510
• Zheng, F., Khan, N. A., & Hussain, S. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic and digital higher education: exploring the impact of proactive personality on social capital through internet self-efficacy and online interaction quality. Children and Youth Services Review, 119, 105694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105694
• Zimmerman, W. A., & Kulikowich, J. M. (2016). Online learning self-efficacy in students with and without online learning experience. American Journal of Distance Education, 30(3), 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2016.1193801

License

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.